Identity Development Theories
Chickering’s Theory of Identity Development
Chickering proposed seven vectors of development that contribute to the formation of identity. Chickering (1969) used the term vectors of development “because each seems to have direction and magnitude – even though the direction may be expressed more appropriately by a spiral or by steps than by a straight line.” Chickering noted that students move through these vectors at different rates, that vectors can interact with each other, and that students often find themselves reexamining issues associated with vectors they had previously worked through. Although not rigidly sequential, vectors do build on each other, leading to greater complexity, stability, and integration as the issues related to each vector are addressed.
The Seven Vectors
Developing Competence:
Competence has three components: Intellectual, Physical, and Interpersonal. Intellectual competence involves acquisition of knowledge and skills related to particular subject matter, development of “intellectual, cultural, and aesthetic sophistication,” and increased skill in areas such as critical thinking and reasoning ability. Physical competence comes through athletic and recreational activities, attention to wellness, and involvement in artistic and manual activities. Interpersonal competence includes skills in communication, leadership, and working effectively with others.
Managing Emotions:
In this vector, students develop the ability to recognize and accept emotions, as well as to appropriately express and control them. In addition, students learn to act on feelings in a responsible manner.
Moving through Autonomy toward
This aspect of development results in increased emotional independence, which is defined as “freedom from continual and pressing needs for reassurance, affection, or approval from others.” This includes self-direction, problem-solving ability, and mobility.
Developing Mature Interpersonal Relationships
The tasks associated with this vector include development of intercultural and interpersonal tolerance and appreciation of differences as well as the capacity for healthy and lasting intimate relationships with partners and close friends.
Establishing Identity
Identity includes comfort with body and appearance, comfort with gender and sexual orientation, a sense of one’s social and cultural heritage, a clear self-concept and comfort with one’s roles and lifestyle, a secure sense of self in light of feedback from significant others, self-acceptance and self-esteem, and personal stability and integration.
Developing Purpose
This vector consists of developing clear vocational goals, making meaningful commitments to specific personal interests and activities, and establishing strong interpersonal commitments. It includes intentionally making and staying with decisions, even in the face of opposition.
Developing Integrity
This vector includes “three sequential but overlapping stages”: humanizing values, personalizing values, and developing congruence. First, students progress from rigid, moralistic thinking to the development of a more humanized value system in which the interests of others are balanced with one’s own interests. Next a personalized value system is established in which core values are consciously affirmed and the beliefs of others are acknowledged and respected. In developing congruence, values and actions become congruent and authentic as self-interest is balanced by a sense of social responsibility.
The Cross Model of Psychological Nigrescence
Nigrescence is a “resocializing experience” in which the healthy individual’s identity is transformed from one of non-Afrocentrism to Afrocentrism to multiculturalism. This model has a five-stage sequential process.
Preencounter
Individuals view race as unimportant and prefer to be accepted as “human beings.”
Encounter
This stage involves an encounter that shatters an individual’s current identity and worldview. This occurs in two steps: (1) undergoing and encounter and (2) being affected by it in a powerful way.
Immersion-Emersion
In the third stage the individual discards remnants of the old identity and commits to personal change. This has two phases: (1) total immersion into blackness while withdrawing from other groups, particularly whites. (2) a progression out of a dualistic, reactionary mode into a more critical analysis of he new black identity.
Internalization
The beginning of a resolution between the old identity and the new black worldview. As anti-white feelings give way to a nonracist perspective, the individual achieves a sense of inner security and self-confidence about being black.
Internalization-Commitment
The final stage translates the new identity into meaningful activities that address concerns and problems shared by African Americans and other oppressed peoples.
Cognitive/Structural Theories
Kohlberg’s Theory of Moral Development
Kohlberg viewed moral development as more than gaining increased knowledge of culturally defined values. Rather, he saw moral development as representing “the transformations that occur in a person’s form or structure of thought.” There are three levels of development, each with 2two stages.
Level I: Preconventional
Stage 1: Heteronomous Morality
Stage 2: Individualistic, Instrumental Morality
In this level, individuals have not yet come to understand societal rules and expectations; their perspective is concrete and individually focused. They cannot see beyond their own needs and concerns.
Level II: Conventional
Stage 3: Interpersonally Normative Morality
Stage 4: Social System Morality
This level is called the “member of society” perspective. At this level, individuals identify with the rules and expectations of others, especially those of authorities.
Level III: Postconventional or Principled
Stage 5: Human Rights and Social Welfare Morality
Stage 6: Morality of Universalizable, Reversible, and Prescriptive General Ethical Principles
This level is labeled the “prior-to-society” perspective. At this level individuals, individuals separate themselves from the rules and expectations of others and base their decisions on self-chosen principles.
King and Kitchener’s Reflective Judgment Model
The Reflective Judgment Model describes a developmental progression that occurs between childhood and adulthood in the ways that people understand the process of knowing and in the corresponding ways that they justify their beliefs about ill-structured problems. There are seven stages, which build on each other.
Stages 1, 2, and 3: Prereflective Thinking
Prereflective Thinkers do not acknowledge or possibly even realize that knowledge is uncertain. Consequently, these individuals don’t recognize the existence of real problems that lack an absolute correct answer. They also don’t use evidence in reasoning toward a conclusion.
Stages 4 and 5: Quasi-reflective Thinking
Quasi-reflective thinkers realize that ill-structured problems exist and that knowledge claims about such problems include uncertainty. Consequently, quasi-reflective thinkers can identify some issues as genuinely problematic. At the same time, though they use evidence, they have difficulty drawing reasoned conclusions and justifying their beliefs.
Stages 6 and 7: Reflective Thinking
Reflective Thinkers maintain that knowledge must be actively constructed and that claims of knowledge must be viewed in relation to the context in which they were generated. Reflective Thinkers maintain that judgments must be based on relevant data and conclusions should be open to reevaluation.
Typological Theories
Kolb’s Theory of Experiential Learning/ Learning Styles
Kolb defined learning as “the process whereby knowledge is created through the transformation of experience.” He regarded learning as a four-stage cycle consisting of Concrete Experience (CE), a feeling dimension; Reflective Observation (RO), a watching dimension; Abstract Conceptualization (AC), a thinking dimension; and Active Experimentation (AE), a doing dimension. This cycle is a series of steps instead of developmental stages. Each step provides a foundation for the succeeding one. Concrete Experience (CE) forms the basis for observation and reflection (RO). These observations are in turn used to develop one’s ideas, including generalizations and theories (AC). From this development of ideas, new implications for actions can be discerned (AE).
Kolb’s learning styles
Convergers (AC/AE) prefer technical tasks over social or interpersonal settings. They also excel at problem solving, decision making, and practical applications.
Divergers (CE/RO) are people and feeling-oriented. They have imagination and are aware of meaning and values and are good at generating and analyzing alternatives.
Assimilators (AC/RO) emphasize ideas rather than people. They are good at inductive reasoning, creating theoretical models, and integrating observations.
Accommodators (CE/AE) are action-oriented and at ease with people and prefer trial-and –error problem solving. They are good at carrying out plans, are open to new experiences, and adapt easily to change.
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